Excess Capacity in a Fixed-Cost Economy

This paper develops a theory of economic slack based on firms that face only fixed costs over a range of output. In this setting, equilibrium output and income depend on consumer demand rather than available supply, even when prices are flexible and there are no other frictions. The theory matches the procyclicality of capacity utilization, firm entry, and markups. A heterogeneous household version of the model demonstrates how an economy can enter a capacity trap in response to a temporary negative demand shock: When demand by some consumers falls temporarily, other consumers’ permanent income (and hence their desired consumption) falls. Since output is demand-determined, the permanent fall in desired consumption causes a permanent state of excess capacity.